Chapter 1

This chapter introduces the varṇamālā, the Sanskrit alphabet. Its vowels and consonants combine to form akṣaras, the syllables from which Sanskrit words and mantras are made.

Before we study the individual letters, the sidebar below presents a traditional correspondence, found in some Hindu texts, between the fifty Sanskrit letters and the petals of the six cakras, from mūlādhāra to ājñā.

Lesson 1—The Alphabet

The Sanskrit alphabet is called the varṇamālā—the garland of letters. The traditional fifty-letter cakra reckoning above includes kṣa as an additional conjunct letter; the practical alphabet presented here counts the forty-nine basic sounds. It contains 14 vowels, 33 consonants and 2 dependent sounds, anusvāra and visarga. The alphabet’s principal sequence is arranged according to sthāna, the place in the mouth where a sound is formed, moving broadly from the back of the mouth toward the lips. Later lessons explain sounds that use shared or additional positions. Learning this pattern makes the alphabet easier to remember and pronounce correctly.

Throughout this course, the letters are shown in both Devanāgarī script and Roman transliteration, so that you may study them in whichever form suits your practice. Here is the varṇamālā:

How Consonants Are Written

Devanāgarī consonants can be understood at two complementary levels. In traditional sound analysis, the fundamental unit is the pure consonant, represented in writing by its halanta form, such as क् k. In ordinary Devanāgarī writing, an unmodified consonant sign such as क is read ka, with an inherent a. A dependent vowel sign gives it another vowel, as in कि ki or कु ku.

The equation below presents the traditional analytical model. The pure consonant base is क्. Any vowel—including a—is added directly to that base:

The mark beneath क् is the virāma. It is a written sign rather than a sound and signifies a pure consonant with no vowel attached, as occurs at points of syllable closure in chanting.

As in the equation above, in Roman transliteration, consonant letters are usually written with the vowel a: ka, kha, ga and so on. This reflects the fact that a Devanāgarī consonant is normally pronounced with an accompanying a unless another vowel is indicated. Thus the letter क is transliterated as ka. If a different vowel is needed, a vowel sign is added, as in कि ki or कु ku. If no vowel is to be pronounced, the virāma mark is added, as in क् k.

The table below—relevant for students learning Devanāgarī—shows the consonants in their halanta forms: क्, ख्, ग्. The virāma removes the inherent vowel, leaving the pure consonant. In traditional explanation, a consonant receives its full expression when joined with a vowel. In the main alphabet charts, this guide uses syllabic forms such as क ka, in which a is the inherent or default vowel. Other vowels are indicated by adding vowel signs, as in कि ki and कु ku.

The consonant varṇas shown above are in halanta form. Each represents a pure consonant with no attached vowel. These pure consonant forms become especially important in the study of sandhi and grammar. The rows show the consonants’ principal alignment within the traditional five-place system. ^†The semivowel v is dental–labial (dantoṣṭhya), formed with both the upper teeth and the edges of the lips. Chapter 3 explains the fuller articulation of the semivowels and sibilants.

The Avagraha (ऽ)

The avagraha symbol marks the place where an initial short a has been elided through sandhi, usually at the beginning of the second of two joined words. It is not a letter and represents no sound of its own. The avagraha does not indicate a pause or break; it simply shows that two words are present and that the initial a of the second word has been dropped. In Devanāgarī it is written as ऽ, an s-like character. In Roman transliteration it appears as an apostrophe—for example, so'ham and namo'stu te.

So'ham comes from saḥ + aham. The final -aḥ of saḥ becomes -o before a following vowel, as covered in Chapter 4, Lesson 3 on Visarga, and the initial a of aham is elided; the avagraha marks its absence. Similarly, namo'stu te comes from namaḥ + astu + te; the a of astu is elided after the preceding o.

How to pronounce it. The avagraha marks a vowel that has been elided—dropped out where two words meet. When chanting, simply continue without pause; the missing vowel is not pronounced. In the syllable-break line, this guide writes only the sounded syllables, so the avagraha does not appear there.

Sanskrit Letters and Syllables

Sanskrit letters are called varṇas, the individual sound-elements of the alphabet; varṇamālā means the “garland of varṇas.” In the traditional analysis followed here, a vowel varṇa is a pure vowel sound, while a consonant varṇa is the pure consonant without an added vowel. Thus k is one varṇa, while ka combines the varṇas k and a to form one pronounceable akṣara.

In this guide, akṣara means the syllable-unit used in chanting: it contains one vowel and often one or more consonants. The vowel a is therefore both a varṇa and an akṣara, while kra contains three varṇas—k, r and a—but forms one akṣara.

Words, called śabdas, are formed by combining akṣaras. For example, the word tatra is made up of two akṣaras, ta and tra, which in Devanāgarī is written तत्र.

Lesson 2—The Birthplaces of Sanskrit Sounds

In the following table, we present the 49 sounds of Sanskrit, grouped according to the location in the mouth (sthāna) from which they arise. This systematic arrangement is one of the distinctive features of the Sanskrit alphabet. The sounds are organized according to their place of articulation, progressing from the back of the mouth toward the lips. 
There are five principal birthplaces of sound: 1) guttural, 2) palatal, 3) retroflex, 4) dental and 5) labial. These five positions organize the five vargas and provide the chapter’s principal map. Some vowels, semivowels and sibilants involve shared or additional positions, which are noted where relevant. Understanding these five positions will help you pronounce the sounds correctly and appreciate the elegant structure of the Sanskrit language.

Some Sanskrit articulations have no exact counterpart in English or other languages. Learning them requires deliberate practice to pronounce the Sanskrit varṇas accurately.

Lesson 3—Introducing the Vowels

Vowels are called svaras. They can form pronounceable syllables on their own, and their sound is free-flowing and unrestricted.

Consonants are called vyañjanas. They can be articulated in a pure halanta form, but in normal Sanskrit recitation they function within syllables and are sounded with a vowel.

Below, the vowels are shown in two groups. The first group contains the simple vowels, arranged by their primary place of articulation. The second group contains the combined vowels, traditionally understood as joining two vowel positions.

The vowel ḷ ऌ is extremely rare in Classical Sanskrit, and its long counterpart ḹ ॡ is retained chiefly as part of the traditional phonetic and grammatical inventory rather than for use in ordinary vocabulary. Do not confuse the vowel ऌ with the similarly shaped Vedic consonant ळ ḷa.

Lesson 4—Simple Vowels

Among the 14 Sanskrit vowels, the first five are the most basic:

Each of these five vowels has a long (dīrgha) version:

These ten are grouped in this guide as simple vowels. The traditional term samānākṣara refers to the corresponding non-composite category: each maintains a uniform sound throughout its duration.

Sanskrit measures vowel duration in mātrās, or beats. A short vowel, called hrasva, is sounded for one beat. A long vowel, called dīrgha, is sounded for two beats and is distinguished in transliteration by a horizontal line above the letter, like this: ā. The length of each beat depends on the speed of recitation or speech.

There is also a third vowel length called pluta, which lasts three mātrās and is found, though not commonly, in ancient Vedic texts. Pluta vowels are generally indicated by a Sanskrit number three (३) in Devanāgarī, for example आ३. They are similarly marked in transliteration: ā3. Traditional phonetic teaching illustrates the three vowel lengths through the rhythm of a rooster’s crow: one beat, two beats and finally a full three-beat call.

Lesson 5—Diphthong Vowels

The final four vowels—e ए, ai ऐ, o ओ and au औ—are classified as diphthongs. In the traditional terminology used here, they are sandhyakṣaras, composite vowels, in contrast with the simple samānākṣara vowels, because they arise from combinations of simpler vowel sounds. They are also known as saṁyukta svaras, conjoined vowels. In practical pronunciation, e and o are usually sounded as smooth, steady long vowels, while ai and au have a more evident blended quality.

e ए is a combination of a अ + i इ, starting at position 1, guttural, and moving to position 2, palatal. This is a grammatical analysis, not an instruction to pronounce the vowel as two separate sounds in chanting. In practical recitation, e ए is usually sounded as a smooth, steady long vowel.

ai ऐ is a combination of a अ + e ए. It begins from the guttural position and moves toward the palatal sound, forming the akṣara ai. In chanting, ai ऐ is still pronounced as a single vowel, though its composite nature is more apparent than in e ए.

o ओ is a combination of a अ + u उ, starting at position 1, guttural, and moving to position 5, labial. This is a grammatical analysis, not an instruction to pronounce the vowel as two separate sounds in chanting. In practical recitation, o ओ is usually sounded as a smooth, steady long vowel.

au औ is a combination of a अ + o ओ. It begins from the guttural position and moves toward the labial sound, forming the akṣara au. In chanting, au औ is pronounced as a single vowel, though its composite nature is more apparent than in o ओ.

Pronouncing e ए and o ओ as unitary sounds

Although Sanskrit grammar treats e and o as combinations of simpler vowels, in chanting they are generally pronounced as smooth, steady long vowels rather than as separate sounds.

Reminder: In the Sanskrit inventory and notation used in this guide, e, ai, o and au are long vowels and are held for two mātrās, even though Roman transliteration does not mark them with a macron.

Lesson 6—Vowel Duration & Syllable Duration

Short (hrasva) vowels have a duration of one beat, or mātrā. Long (dīrgha) vowels have a duration of two mātrās. In the inventory used in this guide, the diphthong vowels e, ai, o and au are long by nature. The duration of a long vowel is twice that of a short vowel.

In Roman transliteration, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above the letter. The diphthongs (e, ai, o and au) are not marked, even though they are held for two mātrās. Remember to sound these akṣaras for two mātrās.

Heavy and Light Syllables

In addition to long and short vowels, Sanskrit has two types of syllables: heavy (guru) and light (laghu). These terms refer to duration: a heavy syllable takes two mātrās, while a light syllable takes one. Conventional Roman transliteration does not mark syllable weight, but the governing principles make it possible to recognize.

We will study guru/laghu in detail later. Until then, listen for syllable weight as the teacher chants the exercise words. For now, remember that a long vowel is only one factor that can make a syllable heavy.