Chapter 2 introduced the five places of pronunciation as the way Sanskrit organizes the consonants. This chapter puts that arrangement into practice. The traditional name for such a place is sthāna; here we learn to feel where each sound is formed. The grouped consonants belong to the five sthānas, and many other sounds can be understood through the same arrangement.
Tip: Feeling the Sound
When learning Sanskrit pronunciation, we first focus on listening to how an expert creates each sound. Gradually, though, we learn to feel where each sound is produced and how to form it correctly. As awareness of these points of articulation develops, correct pronunciation becomes easier and more reliable. In time, you learn not only to hear the difference between sounds, but to produce them consciously and enjoy their expression.
Lesson 1—Pronouncing the Grouped Consonants
To understand Sanskrit pronunciation, we begin with the grouped consonants, vargīya-vyañjanāni. These are the familiar five families introduced in Chapter 2; the work of this lesson is to learn where and how to form each grouped consonant in the mouth. We proceed with these letters as five vargas; varga means class, category or group, and here we use it in the practical sense of a sound family.
Use this traditional order as a physical sequence: from the back of the mouth forward to the lips. The notes below slow down each position before you practice the full set aloud.
Ka (क) Varga is guttural (kaṇṭhya). The back of the tongue rises toward the soft palate at the back of the mouth. The sound originates at the back of the mouth—you can feel the back of the tongue working there as you pronounce these letters.
Ka Varga · position 1 · guttural
Ca (च) Varga is palatal (tālavya). The middle of the tongue rises toward the hard palate—the curved roof of the mouth—forming a brief closure in that region. The tip of the tongue rests against the base of the lower front teeth and stays there throughout. The sound strikes upward into the palate rather than forward toward the teeth.
Ca Varga · position 2 · palatal
Ṭa (ट) Varga is retroflex (mūrdhanya). The tip of the tongue curls back and touches the roof of the mouth, behind the dental position. This gives the letters a characteristic “domed” quality distinct from the dental letters that follow.
Ṭa Varga · position 3 · retroflex
Ta (त) Varga is dental (dantya). The tip of the tongue touches the back of the upper front teeth—farther forward than any other group. These are true dental consonants, quite different from the English t and d, which strike a point farther back on the ridge of the mouth.
Ta Varga · position 4 · dental
Pa (प) Varga is labial (oṣṭhya). The lips come together (or nearly so) to form the sound; the tongue does not form the consonant’s point of contact. These are the most familiar letters for English speakers, as the labial position closely matches the English p, b, and m.
Pa Varga · position 5 · labial
Follow the audio through each varga slowly. The aim here is not simply to recite the chart, but to feel each articulation point: back of the mouth, palate, retroflex roof of the mouth, teeth and lips. Repeat until the movement from one position to the next becomes clear and steady.
Pronounce the guttural letters (position one) and feel the back of the tongue working against the soft palate.
Pronounce the palatal letters (position two). Be aware of the sound striking the roof of your mouth as you hold the tongue down, with the tip of the tongue at the base of the lower front teeth.
Pronounce the retroflex letters (position three: those with the dot underneath), consciously touching the tip of the tongue to the front part of the roof of the mouth as you sound the letter.
When you pronounce the dental letters (position four: ta, tha, da, dha, na), touch the tip of your tongue to the back of your upper front teeth.
When you pronounce labial letters, note that the lips form the consonant’s point of contact rather than the tongue.
As you perform this exercise, pay special attention to the point of articulation for each akṣara. Each line moves through the five positions from guttural to labial, then returns from labial to guttural. Perform this exercise at least ten times per group. With experience, you can also try saying the syllables quickly.
Pronounce the first letter of each varga
labial to guttural: pa ta ṭa ca ka
Pronounce the second letter of each varga
labial to guttural: pha tha ṭha cha kha
Pronounce the third letter of each varga
labial to guttural: ba da ḍa ja ga
Pronounce the fourth letter of each varga
labial to guttural: bha dha ḍha jha gha
Mixed letters: Pronounce the groups below in order from Ka Varga to Pa Varga (guttural to labial), then from Pa Varga back to Ka Varga.
labial to guttural: pa dha ṭa ja kha
Lesson 6—How Other Sounds Fit the Five Places
After practicing the five vargas, you can use them as anchors for the rest of the alphabet. Each family gives a clear physical reference point: guttural, palatal, retroflex, dental or labial.
Other Sanskrit sounds also arise from these regions of the vocal tract, though they do not make the same full contact. The table below shows how vowels, semivowels, sibilants and ha align with the five places.
| Principal Five-Place Map How Other Sounds Relate to the Five Places | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1Guttural | 2Palatal | 3Retroflex | 4Dental | 5Labial |
| a, āh | i, īy, ś | ṛ, ṝr, ṣ | ḷl, s | u, ū |
The table shows each sound’s traditional alignment with the five principal places. For semivowels and sibilants, the place alone is not a complete pronunciation instruction: the tongue or lips approach the region without making the full closure used for the grouped consonants. The sounds in the strip use two regions.
This same map also explains why the semivowels and sibilants feel related to vowels and vargas of the same place. They do not make the same full contact as the five grouped families, but they still arise from recognizable regions of the mouth.
The Four Semivowels
Sanskrit has four semivowels (or approximants): ya, ra, la and va. Like the vowels, the semivowels use the vocal cords. The tongue or lips narrow the flow of air without fully blocking it; in va, the teeth and lips work together.
The Three Sibilants
There are three sibilants in Sanskrit: śa, ṣa and sa. Each one is made by bringing the tongue near its place of pronunciation and letting the breath pass through a narrow channel. The result is a clear hissing sound. The sibilants are unvoiced, so the vocal cords do not vibrate during the consonant.
The three Sanskrit sibilants by place of articulation—palatal śa, retroflex ṣa and dental sa—with the contrasting words viṣayaḥ and viśayaḥ.
The Aspirate, ha
Ha ह belongs to the guttural position. It is sounded from the throat, without the tongue or lips forming a separate point of contact.
The five sthāna categories, alpaprāṇa and mahāprāṇa pairs, and a pronunciation drill of all 35 consonants plus the conjuncts kṣa, tra, jña, and śra.
A guide to the dental–retroflex contrast, aspirated consonants, the five nasals, the vowel ṛ and the three sibilants, using IAST transliteration and examples from Vedic verses.
Listen to the audio and repeat each sequence slowly. Notice that these sounds are softer than the varga consonants because the breath is narrowed, not stopped. Continue until the place of each sound becomes easy to feel.
1. Semivowels: ya, ra, la, va
First, listen to and practice each of these four letters.
Second, compare how ya and i, ra and ṛ, la and ḷ, va and u feel in the mouth. Each semivowel is paired with a vowel of the same general position.
2. Sibilants: śa, ṣa, sa
Listen for each sibilant’s point of articulation: śa (palatal), ṣa (retroflex), and sa (dental).
3. Aspirate: ha ह
Feel this letter in the guttural position, at the throat.
The Larger Pattern
The five vargas provide physical anchors for this larger map. Vowels, semivowels, sibilants and ha relate to the same regions, though they do not all use the full closure of the grouped consonants.
Lesson 1—Position 1, Guttural, Ka Varga
Ka Varga
- क ka
- ख kha
- ग ga
- घ gha
- ङ ṅa
Ca Varga
- च ca
- छ cha
- ज ja
- झ jha
- ञ ña
Ṭa Varga
- ट ṭa
- ठ ṭha
- ड ḍa
- ढ ḍha
- ण ṇa
Ta Varga
- त ta
- थ tha
- द da
- ध dha
- न na
Pa Varga
- प pa
- फ pha
- ब ba
- भ bha
- म ma
Ka (क) Varga is guttural (kaṇṭhya). The back of the tongue rises toward the soft palate at the back of the mouth. The sound originates at the back of the mouth—you can feel the back of the tongue working there as you pronounce these letters.
These are sparśa, or “touch,” sounds. For each one, notice the moment of full contact, the brief closing of the air and the clean release. Keep the contact at the soft palate rather than allowing the tongue to move forward.
Repeat the English words below, noticing where the targeted letters occur. Begin by repeating the example word a few times, then try to say the Sanskrit letter independently.
- ka like the k in skate (unaspirated)
- kha like the k in Kate or kh in inkhorn
- ga like the g in gate or go
- gha like the gh in doghouse
- ṅa like the n in sing
Repeat the following words with the audio. All the consonants in these words are from the Ka Varga. Notice how the tongue stays mostly in the same area, moving only for the different vowels.
As you do, note how the back of the tongue contacts the soft palate at position 1, guttural.
Words with consonants from Ka Varga only
Words with only the starting consonant from Ka Varga
Words with only the ending consonant from Ka Varga
Lesson 2—Position 2, Palatal, Ca Varga
Ka Varga
- क ka
- ख kha
- ग ga
- घ gha
- ङ ṅa
Ca Varga
- च ca
- छ cha
- ज ja
- झ jha
- ञ ña
Ṭa Varga
- ट ṭa
- ठ ṭha
- ड ḍa
- ढ ḍha
- ण ṇa
Ta Varga
- त ta
- थ tha
- द da
- ध dha
- न na
Pa Varga
- प pa
- फ pha
- ब ba
- भ bha
- म ma
Ca (च) Varga is palatal (tālavya). The middle of the tongue rises toward the hard palate—the curved roof of the mouth—forming a brief closure in that region. The tip of the tongue rests against the base of the lower front teeth and stays there throughout. The sound strikes upward into the palate rather than forward toward the teeth.
This placement can be unfamiliar to English speakers. Keep the tongue tip low and let the middle of the tongue do the work. Sanskrit cha and jha differ from ca and ja by added breath, not by moving the point of contact.
Repeat the English words below, noticing where the targeted letters occur. Begin by repeating the example word a few times, then try to say the Sanskrit letter independently.
- ca like the ch in church (without added aspiration)
- cha like the ch in chain (with aspiration)
- ja like the j in jump
- jha like the geh in hedgehog or like j in jump with aspiration
- ña a palatal nasal: keep the tongue tip low near the lower front teeth, raise the middle of the tongue toward the hard palate and let the air pass through the nose
Repeat the following words with the audio. They contain only consonants from the Ca Varga. Notice how the tongue stays mostly in the same area, moving only for the different vowels.
Hold the tip of the tongue below the lower front teeth so that the stem or middle of the tongue raises up to touch position 2 (palatal).
Words with consonants from Ca Varga only
Words with only the starting consonant from Ca Varga
Words with only the ending consonant from Ca Varga
Refining the Palatal Position
Pronouncing Sanskrit palatal letters is a common challenge. English speakers often make ca and ja too far forward, using the front or tip of the tongue. In Sanskrit, the middle of the tongue rises toward the palate while the tip stays low, near the lower gums.
One practical approach is to hold the tip of the tongue near the lower gums and try to pronounce ca or ja. The tongue will naturally rise at its middle to reach the palate, producing the correct palatal sound without forcing it.
The vowel i and the semivowel ya give useful reference points because they are also palatal. Try saying ci two ways: first with the tip of the tongue reaching back toward the hard palate, then with the middle of the tongue. With the second method, the tongue barely moves from c to i, confirming that both sounds share the same palatal place.
A Closer Look at the Ca-varga
The common English ch (as in the word change) is an affricate—a consonant that begins as a stop and releases with a hiss, like sh. In this course, Sanskrit ca is taught as a palatal stop without the pronounced hissing release of English ch; making this distinction takes conscious practice for English speakers.
With the audio, practice moving between retroflex and palatal sounds, making the tongue position of ca distinctly palatal by holding the tip of the tongue behind the lower front teeth.
You can also use the guttural letters to get the idea of the palatals by going back and forth between the two vargas. The guttural letters engage the back of the tongue, and the palatal letters engage the middle of the tongue, so this pairing helps to clarify the difference.
The vowel i and the semivowel ya—like the consonants ca and ja—are sounded in the palatal region. Try the following sounds. When done correctly, the positions of the tongue for the vowel and the consonant should feel closely related.
Listen to the audio and pronounce the following words. Each contains letters from the guttural and palatal sthānas only, so the tip of the tongue should stay quiet.
kaja gaja picchikā icchā
Now try each of the palatals coupled with various vowels:
ja ji ju jha jhi jhu
Once you feel comfortable with the palatal letters, try the following words to challenge yourself:
caṇḍa chāyā chatra jvālā
yajvā jalaja jyeṣṭha jhaṇa
Lesson 3—Position 3, Retroflex, Ṭa Varga
Ka Varga
- क ka
- ख kha
- ग ga
- घ gha
- ङ ṅa
Ca Varga
- च ca
- छ cha
- ज ja
- झ jha
- ञ ña
Ṭa Varga
- ट ṭa
- ठ ṭha
- ड ḍa
- ढ ḍha
- ण ṇa
Ta Varga
- त ta
- थ tha
- द da
- ध dha
- न na
Pa Varga
- प pa
- फ pha
- ब ba
- भ bha
- म ma
Ṭa (ट) Varga is retroflex (mūrdhanya). The tip of the tongue curls back and touches the roof of the mouth, behind the dental position. This gives the letters a characteristic “domed” quality distinct from the dental letters that follow.
English t and d are usually formed farther forward. For the Sanskrit retroflex consonants, deliberately draw the tongue tip back toward the hard palate while keeping the contact light and precise.
A Closer Look at Retroflex and Dental Sounds
When retroflex and dental sounds are confused, the issue is usually not loudness or effort, but tongue placement. For retroflex sounds, the tongue curls back toward the roof of the mouth. For dental sounds, the tongue touches or approaches the back of the upper teeth. At first, it can take a certain knack to hear the difference between properly pronounced dental and retroflex sounds. With experience, the distinction becomes clear.
- ṭ like the t of star
- ṭh like the t of tar or the th of anthill
- ḍ like the d of dart
- ḍh like the dh of madhouse
- ṇ there is no close English equivalent; pronounce n with the tongue tip curled back to the retroflex position
Raise the tip or front of the tongue to touch position 3 (retroflex).
Words with consonants from Ṭa Varga only
Starting consonant from Ṭa Varga
Ending consonant from Ṭa Varga
Lesson 4—Position 4, Dental, Ta Varga
Ka Varga
- क ka
- ख kha
- ग ga
- घ gha
- ङ ṅa
Ca Varga
- च ca
- छ cha
- ज ja
- झ jha
- ञ ña
Ṭa Varga
- ट ṭa
- ठ ṭha
- ड ḍa
- ढ ḍha
- ण ṇa
Ta Varga
- त ta
- थ tha
- द da
- ध dha
- न na
Pa Varga
- प pa
- फ pha
- ब ba
- भ bha
- म ma
Ta (त) Varga is dental (dantya). The tip of the tongue touches the back of the upper front teeth—farther forward than any other grouped consonants. These are true dental sounds, unlike the English t and d, which are commonly formed farther back on the ridge of the mouth.
Begin to say ta, but pause before releasing the vowel and notice where the tongue rests. If it is behind the teeth rather than touching them, slide it gently forward. The same dental contact applies to all five letters in the family.
Repeat the English words below, noticing where the targeted letters occur. As noted above, these examples may or may not be dental in your dialect, but they are important for understanding the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds.
- t like the final t of start
- th like the first t of tart or the th of anthill
- d like the d of dart
- dh like the dh of madhouse
- n like the n in tint
Be sure that the tip or front of your tongue touches the back of the upper front teeth, position 4 (dental).
Words with consonants from Ta Varga only
Starting consonant from Ta Varga
Second consonant from Ta Varga
Lesson 5—Position 5, Labial, Pa Varga
Ka Varga
- क ka
- ख kha
- ग ga
- घ gha
- ङ ṅa
Ca Varga
- च ca
- छ cha
- ज ja
- झ jha
- ञ ña
Ṭa Varga
- ट ṭa
- ठ ṭha
- ड ḍa
- ढ ḍha
- ण ṇa
Ta Varga
- त ta
- थ tha
- द da
- ध dha
- न na
Pa Varga
- प pa
- फ pha
- ब ba
- भ bha
- म ma
Pa (प) Varga is labial (oṣṭhya). The lips come together—or nearly so—to form the sound; the tongue does not form the consonant’s point of contact. These are generally familiar letters for English speakers because the position closely matches English p, b and m.
Keep the lips relaxed and notice that aspiration changes the amount of released breath in pha and bha, not the place where the sound is formed.
- p like the p in spin
- ph like the p in pin or path
- b like the b in bin
- bh like the bh in lab-house
- m like the m in mumps
Note how the lips work to create the sounds at position 5 (labial).
Words with consonants from Pa Varga only
Starting consonant from Pa Varga
Ending consonant from Pa Varga
Lesson 7—The Nasals (Anunāsika)
Chapter 2 showed the five nasal consonants as the fifth letter in each varga. Here we practice them by place: ṅ, ñ, ṇ, n, m. Each nasal uses the same contact point as the rest of its family, while the air is redirected through the nose.
Anunāsika means “nasalized” and is a broad term for nasal sounds. With the five nasal consonants, the tongue or lips block the flow of air through the mouth, and the air passes through the nose. Before semivowels, sibilants and h, anusvāra has a softer nasal resonance, with air passing through both the mouth and nose—as before y in saṁyoga, before s in saṁskāra, and before h in saṁhāra. Chapter 4 examines this pronunciation more fully.
The nasal sounds are most easily learned by pairing them with a consonant from their own varga. In this way, you can see what nasal naturally precedes a given consonant—and with practice, this becomes automatic.
However, especially for beginners, it is quite possible to pair an incorrect nasal with the consonant of another varga. This usually happens when we default to using a dental n or a labial m before consonants from other vargas.
The palatal ñ and guttural ṅ most often occur as accommodating nasal sounds for consonants from their own varga—as in gaṅgā (guttural nasal before guttural ga) and pañca (palatal nasal before palatal ca).
Pronouncing nasals incorrectly can also affect the pronunciation of the following consonant. For example, piñca might be said like the English pinch, which uses an English-style n and affricated ch rather than the proper Sanskrit sounds.
Say the following words with the audio. Pay careful attention to making the distinct sounds of the different nasals.
Retroflex, position 3
daṇḍa
If the retroflex ṇ is missed, the word may come out as danda—like English “done + da.”
Guttural, position 1
gaṅga
If the guttural nasal is missed, the word may come out as ganga—like English “gun + ga.”
Palatal, position 2
piñca
If the palatal nasal is missed, the word may sound like English “pinch + a.”
Listen to the recording and repeat each word after the teacher.
1. Pronounce the following groups of words, each containing only one kind of nasal letter. After each set of words, try to say the nasal letter independently.
m म—labial (position 5)
n न—dental (position 4)
ṇ ण—retroflex (position 3)
ñ ञ—palatal (position 2)
ṅ ङ—guttural (position 1)
2. Say each of the nasal letters coupled with different vowels:
na ni nu
ṇa ṇi ṇu
ña ñi ñu
ṅa ṅi ṅu
3. Use the audio to practice these words, which involve more than one nasal or slightly more difficult pronunciation situations.
anaṅgāṇḍa rāmeṇa anañjana
daṇḍena pīṭhanā maṇi
maṇinā āmnāya mantreṇa